The term genetic engineering was first coined by Jack Williamson in his science fiction novel Dragons Island, published in 1951. From the 1980s to the late 1990s, Germany was among the forerunners for the critical debate on biotechnology and genetic engineering. In 1995, coordinated by the Centre of Technology in Baden-Württemberg, a joint venture research project was established. The project followed an interdisciplinary perspective and included research on attitudes, the social and cognitive embedding of attitudes, and argumentation patterns as well as studies on the communication of genetic engineering in the media.
Genetic engineering is the process of manually adding new DNA to an organism. Examples of genetically engineered organisms include:
- Plants with resistance to some insects,
- Plants that can tolerate herbicides
- Crops with modified oil content
Genetic engineering is the process of using technology to alter the genetic makeup of an organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated genomes indirectly by controlling breeding and selecting offspring with desired traits. Manipulating the genetic material of an organism as per the will of man is genetic engineering. Such manipulated organisms are genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Another acceptable definition is the artificial modification of an organism’s genetic composition. Such modifications are carried out through the transfer of a gene taken from cells of another donor organism. Genes transferred are known as transgenes. The creation of genetically modified organisms requires recombinant DNA. Recombinant DNA is a combination of DNA from different organisms or different locations in a given genome that would not normally be found in nature.
Genetic Engineering, also called transformation, works by physically removing a gene from one organism and inserting it into another, giving it the ability to express the trait encoded by that gene.
The process of genetic engineering involves the following steps:
- ISOLATION – An organism that contains the desired trait is found. DNA is extracted from that organism.
- CUTTING-The one desired gene must be located and copied from thousands of genes that were extracted. This is called gene cloning.
- INSERTION-The gene may be modified slightly to work in a more desirable way once inside the recipient organism.
- TRANSFORMATION- The new gene, called a transgene is delivered into cells of the recipient organism.
Benefits of Genetic Engineering
The innovation of new technology has completely changed modern society. Geneticists wish to mirror the engineers of the computer age’s success in the research of modern-day genetic engineering. The promises of the benefits of genetic modification are countless, stretching across a broad range of categories. Implementations of genetically engineered products are employed in humans, animals, plants, and are even used for industrial applications. Genetic Engineering is something that is extremely useful and is something we as humans need. Over the years that research in genetic engineering has been going on, a large percent of scientists’ focus has been on how it can benefit humans; the possible applications are numerous and vary in degrees of reality. A realistic introduction of a genetically engineered product into the human lifestyle includes synthetic human insulin. Before it was synthetically produced, it was harvested from slaughtered animals for people with diabetes to use.
- Genetic engineering is something that can cure cancer and other devastating diseases, such as ALS and cystic fibrosis. Geneticists are pioneering a new technology called gene therapy. Gene therapy is the medical treatment of a disease by repairing or replacing defective genes or introducing therapeutic genes to fight the disease. This future technology will be able to cure cancer and debilitating diseases such as Lou Gehrig’s disease and cystic fibrosis, both of which are caused by a defective gene. Scientists are confident that they can cure these diseases by introducing new genes because it will correct the faulty proteins produced because of the defective gene.
- It can save endangered species of animals and create more hardy varieties of work- animals. Technologies of genetic engineering are so broad that they can be used to enhance the traits that animals have, as well. A surplus of knowledge is available on genetic engineering in animals because that is what scientists began testing first. Such procedures as gene therapy are tested on animals already. Researchers have successfully used gene therapy to cure newborn mice and dogs of the blood disease hemophilia. Research of genetic modification in animals focuses on creating more productive and disease-resistant farm animals; for example, cows that can produce more milk, pigs that produce leaner bacon, sheep that produce more wool
- It can create varieties of plants that are resistant to pests and drought. researchers aim to create plants that offer herbicidal resistance, improved nutritional value, and genetically modified roots that have increased nitrogen fixation. Out of these applications of genetic engineering, creating an increased nutritional value in food is one of the most common. Crops with increased caloric, vitamin, and mineral values are critical in developing countries or poverty-stricken countries of Africa. Examples of these products include rice with higher levels of iron and b-carotene, maize with improved calorie value which are powerful antioxidants to increase the immune response. Another target of genetic engineering is to create plants that offer total herbicidal resistance to weeds around it, pesticide resistance to bugs that eat it, and abiotic resistance to factors such as temperature and water requirements.
Impact of Genetic Engineering
In recent years, the possibility of altering the characteristics of animals and plants through human manipulation of genetic material has left the realm of science fiction and become a reality. Numerous commentators, including some philosophers, have expressed serious reservations about the desirability of these new practices. The commentators sort into two main groups. First, there are those, such as Bernard Rollin, whose concern focuses on the possible harmful consequences for animal and human welfare and the environment, of genetic tampering. At the other extreme are those who, like Andrew Dobson and Jeremy Rifkin, regard genetic engineering as wrong per se. They regard the new practices as wrong whether or not they lead to consequences that would be regarded as good or bad when considered in isolation from their causes.
One of the problems with changing the structure of human DNA is the subsequent loss of natural variation. As well as the unattractive possibility of very little variation in personalities and looks, the loss of natural variation would stop the formation of new genes, thereby severely decreasing the available gene pool. On the larger scale of life, natural variation is vital for subtle adaptions that help species accommodate to changing environments. If genetic alterations become widespread, genes required for particular circumstances or different environments that may be encountered by the organism could conceivably be bred out. If then the organism encounters a change without the gene which would have made adaptation possible, it could suffer or even perish.
The Governments and the biotech industry are promoting genetically modified (GM) crops on the economic benefits they will supposedly bring. However, after several years of growing them, the evidence of the economic benefits is far from clear. In fact, growing GM crops is more likely to result in increased costs – for farmers, consumers, and the economy generally. Indirect effects such as loss of land or farm value, the environmental cost of contamination, and costs incurred by non-GM farmers need to be taken into account in any cost and benefit analysis of growing GM crops commercially.
- Impact on farmers: With the farming industry in crisis, farmers may hope that GM crops will help them to become more competitive in the global marketplace. The biotech industry is promoting GM crops to farmers on this basis. However, many parts of the world’s experience show that the economic gains are patchy at best. And for those farmers who wish to grow non-GM and organic crops costs will increase if commercial growing of GM crops.
- Loss of markets: Consumers, internationally, are increasingly rejecting GM foods. This has resulted in farmers being unable to export their produce as food suppliers went elsewhere to source non-GM crops.
- Beekeepers: Bees are essential pollinators of crops and fruit trees. The consumers want the honey to be free of GM materials. If GM crops were to be grown commercially, maintaining such purity levels would be impossible. This could seriously damage the market for honey so that beekeepers could find it hard to continue
- Costs to consumers: Consumers have consistently rejected GM foods. Consumers across the world want the right to choose whether to eat GM or not. If GM crops are grown widely it will be necessary for the food industry to ensure that the right to eat non-GM products is maintained. However, this may become increasingly difficult if GM crops are grown more widely. The Food Standards Agency has already indicated that it wants non-GM food to be left as a niche market. Inevitably this would be more expensive – consumers will be expected to pay more for the food they have always eaten.
Another large problem with all types of genetic engineering is the interdependence of genes: while on the one hand one gene may code for several features, on the other hand, many genes are frequently required to code for one characteristic. While chromosome mapping is useful, without test crossing with every possible variable characteristic of an organism, it cannot be known what the functions of each gene are. Hence when a gene is removed, what is known about the function of that gene may not be all its codes for. The removed gene may also have a part to play in other functions. Similarly, the inserted gene may have other functions that are not known. Some of the effects of these unknown gene functions may be noticed immediately and possibly be rectifiable, while others without immediate effect may cause significant long-term changes. Little is known about the long-term effects and potential dangers which may be inherited before they are noticed. Such problems may be cumulative and become harder to stop through time as the spread of new genetic problems continues through generations.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is a technique that attempts to cure genetic disorders by replacing or supplementing the damaged gene. Gene therapy is a clinical reality where defective genes can be replaced, pathogenic gene expression can be inhibited, or entirely new and novel functions can be added to cells by gene transfer. These techniques allow for the direct treatment of underlying molecular and cellular defects that give rise to pathologies, especially in monogenic disorders. Gene therapy uses carrier molecules called vectors to deliver the therapeutic gene into the patient’s target cell. The technologies for gene insertion can be divided into those that rely upon viral mechanisms, and those that rely on chemical means or direct physical insertion of DNA. The two most popular viral mechanisms are the retrovirus and the adenovirus while the most accepted in the chemical mechanism is the creation of a phospholipid bilayer called a liposome. There are two means of inserting the therapeutic gene, namely the ex vivo delivery and the in-vino delivery. In vivo is the direct introduction of a therapeutic gene into the bloodstream while ex vivo delivery involves the growing of cultured cells outside the body. Because gene therapy is a powerful technology and it involves changing the body’s basic instructions, it raises many unique ethical concerns and the most controversial among these is the idea of germline gene therapy, wherein the effect can be passed on to the next generation. It may be concluded that gene therapy is still in its infancy and will need more technical and bioethical advances but at present has been used with some success.
Gene Knock-in
Gene knock-in or knock-in mouse model is an important concept that helps us understand some of the improved research methods employed in modern science. It is an important model which is used in research, biotechnology, and medicine. The process involves the insertion of a gene sequence at a particular locus, often done in researches. The concerned insertion causes genetic mutation to study the development of various diseases and their effects in vivo. The gene knock-in is essential for the following:
- It can assist the scientists in assigning functions to genes, dissecting genetic pathways, and manipulating the cellular or biochemical properties of proteins. It will improve the understanding level of the scientists about the human genome along with the role played by the genes in the body of living organisms.
- It aids in shedding light on the complex structure of the human genome and genetic mutations that are caused due to knock-in gene insertion.
- It is a powerful and useful agent to model genetic disorders, understand embryonic development and evaluate therapeutics.
Gene Knock-in has proved successful in various clinical applications. Knock-in of some parts of the human immunoglobulin gene into mice has led to the production of humanized antibodies that are useful in therapies. It can prove beneficial in modifying the stem cells present in humans for restoring targeted gene function in particular tissues.