How a Personalized mRNA Cancer Vaccine Is Made From a Tumor Sample
Last updated: November 14, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: A personalized mRNA cancer vaccine starts with the patient’s own tumor. Doctors sequence the tumor and blood, a computer…
What Is a Peptide Drug? Approved Medicines vs “Research Peptides”
Last updated: November 14, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: A peptide drug is a medicine made of a short chain of amino acids, usually 500 to 5,000 daltons…
How GLP-1 Drugs Work: Single, Dual and Triple Agonists
Last updated: November 14, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: GLP-1 drugs copy a gut hormone and switch on its receptor in the pancreas and brain, so insulin rises…
How mRNA Vaccines Work, Step by Step
Last updated: November 12, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD In late 2020, people who had never thought about molecular biology were suddenly saying “mRNA” over dinner.…
Immune System and Its Parts: Organs, Cells and How They Work
Last updated: October 31, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD In short: The immune system and its parts work as one defence network. Skin and mucous membranes…
Hormones and Their Functions: Types, Examples and How They Work
Last updated: November 12, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD In short: The types of hormones and their functions follow from their chemistry. Hormones are chemical messengers…
Recombinant DNA Technology: Steps, Examples & Uses Explained
Last updated: November 12, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD Recombinant DNA technology is a set of lab methods that cut a gene out of one organism’s…
Types of Proteins: Structure, Functions and Examples
Last updated: October 31, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD In short: Proteins are large molecules made of amino acids linked in a chain that folds into…
What Is Genetic Engineering?
Last updated: November 12, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD What is genetic engineering? By definition, it is the use of laboratory tools to change the DNA…
Types of Nanoparticles: Organic, Inorganic and Carbon-Based (With Examples)
Last updated: October 31, 2026 · Written by Dr Nidhi Joshi, MSc, PhD In short: Nanoparticles are particles roughly 1 to 100 nanometres across, far smaller than a cell. The…