How mRNA Vaccines Work, Step by Step
In late 2020, people who had never thought about molecular biology were suddenly saying “mRNA” over dinner. It sounded brand new. It isn’t. The science goes back decades, and how…
Immune System and Its Parts: Organs, Cells and How They Work
Last updated: October 30, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: The immune system and its parts work as one defence network. Skin and mucous membranes block germs. White blood…
Hormones and Their Functions: Types, Examples and How They Work
Last updated: October 30, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: The types of hormones and their functions follow from their chemistry. Hormones are chemical messengers made by glands and…
Recombinant DNA Technology: Steps, Examples & Uses Explained
Recombinant DNA technology is a set of lab methods that cut a gene out of one organism’s DNA with restriction enzymes, join it into a carrier DNA (a vector, usually…
Types of Proteins: Structure, Functions and Examples
Last updated: October 30, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: Proteins are large molecules made of amino acids linked in a chain that folds into a precise 3D shape.…
What Is Genetic Engineering?
By Dr Nidhi Joshi · Updated October 2026 In short: Genetic engineering means changing an organism’s DNA on purpose with lab tools — by adding, removing, or editing genes —…
Types of Nanoparticles: Organic, Inorganic and Carbon-Based (With Examples)
Last updated: October 30, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: Nanoparticles are particles roughly 1 to 100 nanometres across, far smaller than a cell. The main types of nanoparticles…
Drug Discovery Process: 6 Stages From Lab to Medicine
Last updated: October 31, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: The drug discovery process is the long road from a disease question to an approved medicine. The main stages…
Vaccine Types and Classification: How Vaccines Are Grouped
Last updated: October 30, 2026 · Dr Nidhi Joshi In short: Vaccine types and classification describe how vaccines are grouped by what they contain: a weakened live germ, a killed…
What Are Enzymes Made Of? Structure, Types and Uses
By Dr Nidhi Joshi Enzymes are biological catalysts made mostly of protein: long chains of amino acids folded into a precise 3D shape. A small pocket called the active site…